Colocasia Esculenta as a Potential Plant-Based Medicine: A Review on Its Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities

Introduction

Traditional medicine remains a primary pillar in the basic healthcare systems of many developing countries, where a significant portion of the population relies on traditional practitioners and medicinal plants, despite the availability of modern medicine. The popularity of phytomedicine persists because of historical and cultural factors. In developed countries, interest in alternative and complementary therapies, including medicinal herbs, continues to grow as part of a holistic approach to health. Traditional medicine systems have increasingly attracted worldwide attention over the past ten years.¹

Traditionally, Colocasia esculenta or taro has been widely utilized as a food source and as a traditional medicine. In Africa, taro is also considered an important food crop with various health benefits: its corm provides energy, while the leaves contain vitamins and minerals (β-carotene, iron, folate) believed to help protect the kidneys and prevent acidosis and kidney stones.² Meanwhile, in Islamic and Mediterranean medieval records, taro (referred to as qolqas) was used both as food and medicine, with its distribution noted along the East African coast, Egypt, and Syria, and it was consumed therapeutically after being peeled and boiled to remove its acrid properties.³ In Asia, particularly India, taro is widely known in different regions under local names such as eddoe, arvi, and arbi. All parts of the plant (corm, leaves, and petioles) have been employed in traditional medicine to treat general weakness, constipation, baldness, stomatitis, hemorrhoids, liver diseases, and are attributed with laxative, demulcent, styptic, antidiabetic, antidepressant, and anthelmintic effects.⁴ In Indonesia, various ethnic communities such as Banjar, Dayak, Kutai, Malay, Bugis, and Toraja have utilized taro corms, petioles, and leaves both as staple food and as traditional remedies, including for lowering blood pressure and as an alternative therapy for diabetes.⁵

In Indonesia, traditional medicine plays a significant role in supporting the public healthcare system. Indonesia has great potential for developing traditional medicines derived from natural products as a tropical country with abundant biodiversity and a diverse ethnomedicinal cultural heritage. One of the natural resources widely grown in various regions of Indonesia, which the community has long utilized as a food source and traditional medicine, is taro, with the botanical name Colocasia esculenta (L.) Scott belongs to the Araceae family (see Figure 1).

Figure 1 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Scott (a) plant and (b) tubers or corms.

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, a perennial herb of the Araceae family, is characterized by large peltate leaves and thick underground corms rich in starch, which serve as its main storage organ.⁶ The plant is commonly propagated vegetatively through corms, cormels, or stolons, as this approach is more reliable than seed propagation.⁷ Botanically, taro is classified into two major types: the eddoe-type, producing numerous side-corms, and the dasheen-type, which has a larger central corm with few side-corms, reflecting differences in physiology and utilization.^7,8 Taro also shows high morphological plasticity, adapting widely across varieties.⁸

Ecologically, taro thrives in tropical and subtropical regions with temperatures of 25–30 °C and high rainfall (2000–2500 mm). It tolerates waterlogging and is often cultivated in paddy fields, wetlands, and riverbanks, although some adaptive varieties can grow under dryland conditions with limited irrigation.⁷ Local varietal diversity is evident worldwide: in Indonesia, surveys in Central Java identified landraces such as beneng, benek, kasduto, wungu, and banyu.⁹ In India and South Asia, a wild variant, var. aquatilis, produces long stolons and occurs from Southeast Asia to Australia.⁸ In Hawaii, commercial cultivars like Bun Long and Maui Lehua are widely used for cultivation and poi production.¹⁰ Studies report distinct nutritional and starch profiles in Moi, Tahitian, and Bun-long, supporting their potential in modern food development.¹¹

C. esculenta is a tuber crop that is widely cultivated in South America and Asia, particularly in Indonesia, as a local food source that is rich in carbohydrates and fiber.^12,13 Various taro varieties are distributed throughout the Indonesian archipelago. However, their utilization remains limited to traditional food consumption and has not been widely developed as a raw material for herbal medicine. Considering Indonesia’s rich biodiversity and ethnomedicinal heritage, taro has great potential for further development as a functional plant and a natural-based traditional medicine.

C. esculenta has attracted the attention of researchers in various scientific disciplines owing to its pharmacological, nutritional, and agronomic potential. Over the years, the number of studies focusing on this plant has significantly increased. As shown in Figure 2, research on C. esculenta has grown steadily from 1990 to the present, showing a linear trend-line with a regression equation of y = 0.8366x – 1668.3 and a correlation coefficient of R = 0.8744, thus reflecting the global interest in its applications in health, functional food, and sustainable agriculture. This trend also indicates that research on C. esculenta has developed quantitatively and expanded geographically, covering various countries across Asia, Africa, the Americas, and the Pacific Region.

Figure 2 Annual distribution of research on Colocasia esculenta searched in the PubMed database in the period between 1990 and 2025, showing a linear trendline with a regression equation of y = 0.8366x – 1668.3 and a correlation coefficient of R = 0.8744.

Studies on C. esculenta have shown that this plant contains bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins, which exhibit potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial properties.¹⁴ Moreover, its abundant phenolics and flavonoids, such as chlorogenic acid, catechin, and quercetin, exhibit high antioxidant activity. These compounds neutralize free radicals by donating an electron or a hydrogen atom, which helps prevent oxidation reactions that could harm cells and tissues.¹⁵ C. esculenta is rich in soluble fibres and polysaccharides, slowing glucose absorption in the intestines and regulating blood sugar levels.¹⁶ Additionally, the flavonoid content in C. esculenta has been shown to enhance insulin sensitivity by modulating insulin signaling pathways and reducing insulin resistance in individuals with type 2 diabetes.¹⁷ The phenolic and alkaloid compounds in C. esculenta disrupt bacterial cell membranes, inhibit bacterial protein synthesis, and interfere with the activity of essential enzymes in pathogenic microorganisms.¹⁸ A deeper understanding of the benefits and active compounds of C. esculenta is essential to support its utilization in healthcare and the food industry.¹⁹ Considering all, this article aims to provide insights into the potential of C. esculenta as a plant-based medicine by exploring various studies on the pharmacological activities of this plant.

The application of C. esculenta necessitates careful evaluation of its safety profile and traditional dosage practices. Both corms and leaves contain antinutritional constituents, including calcium oxalate crystals, tannins, and cyanogenic compounds, which may cause gastrointestinal irritation if consumed without appropriate processing. Traditional preparation methods such as boiling, roasting, and fermentation have historically been employed to reduce antinutrient levels and enhance edibility to mitigate these risks.^7,20 Preclinical investigations further indicate a favorable safety margin, as ethanolic leaf extracts did not induce mortality in acute toxicity studies at doses up to 5000 mg/kg. Moreover, antihyperglycemic, antihypertensive, and diuretic effects were observed to be safe within a therapeutic window of 100–400 mg/kg in animal models.²¹ These findings underscore the therapeutic promise of C. esculenta, highlighting the need for further investigations to establish long-term safety thresholds and robust clinical validation.

Methods

Only peer-reviewed articles reporting pharmacological, phytochemical, or toxicological findings of C. esculenta were included to ensure scientific rigor. Further screening was conducted based on titles and abstracts, excluding unrelated articles, non-English publications, review papers, and duplicates. Studies focusing solely on agricultural or nutritional aspects without pharmacological relevance were excluded. Additional inclusion criteria were: (i) availability of full-text articles, (ii) publication in English, and (iii) publication within the last ten years (2015–2024). Quality assessment was performed by evaluating study design, methodological reproducibility, adequacy of controls, and clarity of outcome reporting.

This review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews) guidelines to ensure transparency and reproducibility. Relevant articles on Colocasia esculenta were retrieved from the PubMed database using the keyword “C. esculenta.” Filters were applied to restrict results to English-language articles, free full-text availability, and publications between 2015 and 2024. This initial search yielded 246 records. A total of 204 articles were excluded for being unrelated to pharmacological or phytochemical aspects, being review papers, lacking full-text access, or providing insufficient or irrelevant data. Following the screening and eligibility assessment, 42 articles were included in the final qualitative synthesis. These studies addressed the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, or toxicological evaluation of C. esculenta.

Ethnopharmacology

C. esculenta has long been used in traditional medicine across various cultures because of its diverse bioactive compound content. Ethnopharmacologically, pressed petiole (leaf stalk) juice has styptic properties and is used to stop arterial bleeding. It is also used to treat earache (otalgia) and ear discharge (otorrhoea), and serves as a stimulant and rubefacient to enhance blood circulation, including in cases of internal hemorrhage. Leaf juice is a stimulant, expectorant, astringent, appetite enhancer, and a remedy for ear pain. Traditionally, the leaf stalk juice mixed with salt has been used as an absorbent to treat inflamed glands and buboes. The cooked C. esculenta contains mucilage, which is considered an effective nervine tonic. A decoction made from the peel is used in folk medicine to treat diarrhea. Taro is also believed to promote weight gain and reduce excessive sputum secretion in asthmatic individuals. Corm juice has been topically applied to treat alopecia. Internally, C. esculenta corm is used to treat hemorrhoids and portal system congestion as a laxative, demulcent, mild analgesic (anodyne), and galactagogue (a lactation inducer).²²

The extensive historical use and well-established nutritional profile of C. esculenta highlight its potential as a functional food with health-promoting attributes. The starch derived from C. esculenta is characterized by its small and fine granule structure, which facilitates high digestibility and renders it appropriate for individuals with compromised or sensitive digestive systems. Furthermore, taro is inherently hypoallergenic and devoid of gluten, positioning it as a suitable carbohydrate source for populations with gluten-related disorders, including celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity.²³ In the Patuakhali and Barguna districts of southern Bangladesh, the leaves and petioles of C. esculenta are traditionally used for their hemostatic properties and in treating wounds to promote healing.²⁴ Other studies have reported that, traditionally, the tuber of C. esculenta is used in the management of diabetes mellitus and the treatment of ringworm, cough, sore throat, and wounds.²⁵

C. esculenta, commonly known as “Alu and dasheen”, is a food crop in the Caribbean and is used as a traditional food for treating diabetes mellitus. The plant is useful for curing diabetes; it is anthelmintic, demulcent, and helpful for cough, sore throat, and wounds.²⁶ C. esculenta has been utilized in traditional Chinese medicine as a component of tonic formulations and as a therapeutic agent for gastrointestinal disorders, particularly following tumor resection procedures. Tubers are a rich source of resistant starch and are commonly employed as an alternative carbohydrate in various dietary patterns across different countries. Additionally, C. esculenta contains several defense-related proteins, including lectins and metallothionein, which play a role in protecting plants against pests, pathogens, and abiotic stressors.²⁵

Botanical and Phytochemical Aspects

C. esculenta is a tropical corm plant that includes various cultivars. This herbaceous plant is commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions.²⁶ C. esculenta is one of the Araceae family’s most economically and nutritionally essential members, cultivated primarily for its starchy corms, which serve as a staple food in many regions.²⁷ The plant grows up to 1.5 meters tall, with large, heart-shaped (cordate) leaves that are dark green, glossy, and borne on long petioles extending directly from the corm. Underground corms are thick, cylindrical, or globose, with brown fibrous skin and white, yellow, or purple flesh, depending on the variety. C. esculenta produces an inflorescence typical of the family Araceae, which consists of a spadix enclosed by a greenish-yellow spathe. The flowers are unisexual, with male and female flowers arranged separately on the spadix.²⁸ Flowering is rare in cultivated varieties, but occurs naturally in wild populations. The plants thrive in warm and humid environments with high rainfall and are often grown in flooded or well-drained soils.²⁹

Molecular markers, particularly microsatellites, also known as Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR), have become essential tools in plant genetics and breeding because they provide precise information on genetic diversity, genome organization, and trait inheritance. In C. esculenta, the development and application of SSR markers facilitate germplasm management, genome mapping, marker-assisted selection, and the conservation of genetic resources, thereby enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of breeding programs. Previous studies successfully developed SSR markers from C. esculenta genomic libraries, and out of 43 primer pairs tested, 16 exhibited polymorphisms with an average of 3.2 alleles per locus. These SSR markers have proven highly useful in various applications, including germplasm collection management, genome mapping, and marker-assisted selection programs. Consequently, they serve as a critical tool to support the breeding and genetic conservation of C. esculenta, enabling more effective varietal identification and the selection of desirable traits.³⁰

A comprehensive understanding of the pharmacological potential and nutritional significance of C. esculenta necessitates a detailed examination of the phytochemical profiles of its distinct plant organs. Leaves, tubers, stems, and flowers harbor diverse bioactive constituents and essential nutrients, underpinning the plant’s therapeutic efficacy and health-promoting properties. The subsequent section presents an in-depth analysis of these phytochemical and nutritional components.

The leaves of C. esculenta contain various bioactive compounds, including flavonoids and triterpenoids such as quercetin, luteolin 7-rutinoside, vitexin, rutin, kaempferol, orientin, oxalic acid, and acenaphthylene. Additionally, the leaves are rich in nutrients such as calcium oxalate, minerals (calcium and phosphorus), fiber, starch, and vitamins A, B, and C.³⁸ Other reports also mention the presence of phenolics, alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, terpenoids, and general phenolic compounds.³¹ The tubers or corms of C. esculenta have a high content of globulin protein (about 80% of total protein), starch (73–80%), polysaccharide polymers (56% neutral sugars and 40% anionic components), as well as minor lipids and monoester phosphate.^32,33 The stems and flowers of C. esculenta also contain various phytochemicals, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, saponins, steroids, and tannins. Phenolic compounds are more dominant in the flowers, alkaloids, flavonoids, and saponins are present at fairly high levels, and glycosides and steroids are detected in smaller amounts. Tannins are highly dominant in the stems, with flavonoids and steroids present in low amounts, and the other compounds occur in moderate quantities.³⁴

Phenolic compounds identified from the corm (tuber) extracts of C. esculenta obtained from Giardino della Minerva in Salerno, Italy, including 3,4,5-tri-o-methyl gallic acid, were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with a diode array detector (HPLC-DAD). Their chemical structures were identified through nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectroscopy (MS) techniques.³⁵ In contrast, the tubers of C. esculenta from Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria, revealed the presence of phenolic compounds such as pyrogallic acid, gallic acid, syringic acid, benzoic acid, and vanillic acid.³⁶ In C. esculenta leaves collected from India, chlorogenic acid was identified,³⁷ while the flowers of C. esculenta obtained from the Fulgazi region (Feni District, Chattogram, Bangladesh) were found to contain cyclohexane-1,2-diol 2-(4-methylcyclohex-3-en-1-yl)propan-2-yl propanoate.³⁸ The flavonoid compounds identified from the tubers of C. esculenta collected from Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria, include catechin and anthocyanin.³⁶ Meanwhile, the leaves of C. esculenta obtained from India contained quercetin, rutin, vitexin, and kaempferol.³⁷ The flavonoid content of C. esculenta flowers collected from the Fulgazi region (Feni District, Chattogram, Bangladesh) revealed the presence of octyl-β-D-glucopyranoside.³⁸ Phenolics, flavonoids, and β-sitosterol play a role in antioxidant, anti-inflammation, and other pharmacological activities. C. esculenta was collected from the Al Monier Village, Al-Sharkya Governorate, Egypt, and its compounds were isolated using various chromatographic techniques. In addition, compounds such as ergosterol, fonsecinone A, asperpyrone C, and asperpyrone B were also identified.³⁹ Flavonoid compounds, such as orientin and daucosterol, were isolated from C. esculenta leaves collected in Al Monier Village, Egypt, using silica gel column chromatography.⁴⁰ Another study reported an isolation of methyl palmitate, stearic acid, elaidic acid, and hexanedioic acid from C. esculenta tubers collected at the National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, Nigeria.¹⁸ All of the metabolites isolated from C. esculenta are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 Metabolites Isolated From the C. Esculenta Plant

The chemical and nutritional composition of Colocasia esculenta exhibits significant variability, influenced by environmental and cultivation factors. Leaf mineral content, including Fe, Cu, Mg, K, and Zn, as well as phytochemicals such as chlorogenic acid, anthraquinones, cinnamic acid derivatives, phenolics, apigenin, catechins, vitexin, and isovitexin, is strongly dependent on plant conditions, including climate, cultivation location, and the variety used.⁴⁵ Additionally, as an anti-nutritional factor, oxalate content varies and can be reduced through food processing. This variability is observed at the environmental level and among genotypes. A study on Colocasia genotypes from the Eastern Himalayas indicated that multivariate analysis (Principal Component Analysis, PCA) highlighted the primary influence of genotype on traits such as total sugars, anthocyanins, phenolics, antioxidant activity (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power, FRAP), and oxalate content (total and insoluble).⁴⁶ These findings suggest a trade-off between yield and nutritional or anti-nutritional quality, an important consideration in plant breeding programs.

In silico Studies of C. Esculenta

To further elucidate the therapeutic potential of Colocasia esculenta in the management of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), an in silico approach was employed to screen and evaluate the bioactivity of its phenolic constituents. This computational method aimed to identify compounds that can inhibit two key proteins involved in BPH pathophysiology, namely 5α-reductase and α1-adrenoceptor.⁴⁷ These proteins are well-established pharmacological targets in conventional BPH treatment, with finasteride and tamsulosin serving as standard reference drugs. Among the 22 phenolic compounds analyzed, 14 demonstrated strong binding affinity toward 5α-reductase, resembling the inhibitory action of finasteride, whereas 10 compounds exhibited affinity for the α1-adrenoceptor, analogous to the mechanism of tamsulosin. Molecular docking simulations revealed that CyP20 had the highest binding affinity for both targets, suggesting its potential as a dual-action agent. Furthermore, the interaction of C. esculenta phenolics with α1-adrenoceptor showed comparable effectiveness to tamsulosin, indicating that these natural compounds may offer synergistic or alternative pathways for BPH symptom management through the modulation of androgenic activity and smooth muscle contraction.⁴⁸

In vitro Studies of C. Esculenta

Research on C. esculenta has shown potential progress in recent decades, particularly using in vitro approaches. Its anticancer,^35,49 antibacterial,^50–52 anti-inflammatory,^42,50,53,54 proliferative,⁵² radical scavenging,^37,42 and antidiabetic properties have been reported.³⁸ In vitro methods are widely used because they allow for systematic and controlled preliminary analysis of bioactive compounds in C. esculenta, whether from crude extracts or purified fractions. The findings of these in vitro studies provide a critical foundation for further in vivo research and clinical trials to confirm the therapeutic potential of this plant. Various in vitro studies are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2 In vitro Studies of C. Esculenta

Anticancer Activity

Research on the anticancer activity of C. esculenta raw ethanol extract has shown that it inhibits T-cell leukemia, colon cancer, prostate cancer, and breast cancer by suppressing cell proliferation and significantly reducing metastasis.⁵⁵ Corms of C. esculenta were collected from Giardino Della Minerva (Salerno, Italy), and the antimetastatic effectiveness originates from the suppression of tumor cell migration by directly downregulating the COX-1/2/PGE pathway, and indirectly by stimulating the antitumor immune response. Unlike methanol extracts from its leaves, they exhibited cytotoxic effects against gastric adenocarcinoma cells. This effect was mediated by apoptosis, which was driven by increasing caspase-3 activity. C. esculenta extract and its fractions were found to activate apoptosis markers and modulate the phosphorylation status of proteins essential for cell proliferation and tumor development. Further analysis of the active fraction led to the identification of the first bioactive phenolics: 3,4,5-tri-O-methyl-gallic acid, isolariciresinol, and dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol-9-O-β-D-glucopyranoside.³⁵

Research on the effectiveness of liposomal tarin nanocapsule lectin derived from C. esculenta corms encapsulated in liposomes has shown that tarin can effectively inhibit the proliferation of glioblastoma and breast adenocarcinoma cancer cells in both the free and encapsulated forms. Moreover, tarin exhibited no toxicity toward healthy cells, including mouse bone marrow cells and L929 fibroblasts. Additionally, the encapsulated tarin exhibited a proliferative effect on healthy cells, which was suspected to be related to the increased production of cytokines or growth factors. Liposomal tarin nanocapsules successfully inhibited glioblastoma cell growth in cancer cell efficacy tests. However, free tarin did not exhibit cytotoxic effects on cancer cells, indicating that the encapsulation process enhanced its effectiveness by increasing its internalization within tumor cells. In addition to its anticancer effects, tarin has potential as an immunomodulatory agent capable of protecting hematopoietic cells from the toxic effects of chemotherapeutic drugs such as cyclophosphamide.⁴⁹

Antibacterial Activity

C. esculenta has been studied for its potential antibacterial properties, inhibiting the growth of various bacteria, such as Porphyromonas gingivalis,^50,51 Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli.⁵² The details are described below.

The methanol extract of C. antiquorum var. esculenta from the Korea Plant Extract Bank can suppress the growth of Porphyromonas gingivalis at concentrations of 125 μg/mL and 250 μg/mL, with inhibition reaching about 20%, and at a concentration of 500 μg/mL, resulting in approximately 40% inhibition.⁵⁰ Further evaluation of its effects on P. gingivalis revealed that the 75% ethanol extract of C. antiquorum var. esculenta possesses antibacterial activity, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 31.3 μg/mL and a minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of 62.5 μg/mL. The results showed that the 75% ethanol extract was more potent than the methanol extract.⁵⁵

C. esculenta tuber protein–chitosan–poly (ethylene oxide) cross-linked nanofibers have antibacterial activity against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria. The tubers of C. esculenta were obtained from PT. Sentra Biogen Bandung, Indonesia. The findings revealed a significant decrease in bacterial colonies, with a reduction rate exceeding 98% for S. aureus and 90–95% for E. coli. Based on the bacterial colony reduction rate, this activity was classified as bacteriostatic.⁵²

Another findings highlight the antibacterial activity of C. esculenta against Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212), which is attributed to the presence of secondary metabolite compounds such as phenolics, flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, tannins, and triterpenoids. Saponins exert antibacterial effects by disrupting the permeability of bacterial cell wall.⁵⁶

Anti-Inflammatory Activity

The anti-inflammatory activity of C. esculenta and its variants is exerted through the inhibition of pro-inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, along with the downregulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and COX-2 expression.^50,53,54,57 Further details are provided below.

A study showed that administration of C. esculenta root methanol extract from Udalguri District, Assam, India, to LPS-stimulated murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells significantly reduced PGE2 and NO levels while downregulating iNOS and COX-2 mRNA expression.⁵³ Another study from Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand, demonstrated that water-soluble non-starch polysaccharides from C. esculenta corms (TC-WS-NSP) can reduce IL-8 production in TNF-α stimulated HT-29 cells infected with Klebsiella oxytica.⁵⁴ Response to infection by enteropathogenic bacteria or their toxins in the digestive tract triggers epithelial cells to secrete IL-8 and other pro-inflammatory cytokines.⁵⁸ The reduction in IL-8 levels following TC-WS-NSP treatment suggests that this prebiotic interferes with the adhesion of K. oxytica to HT-29 cells stimulated by TNF-α, thereby decreasing IL-8 secretion in response to bacterial infection.

Furthermore, the administration of C. antiquorum var. esculenta from Namwonsi, Jeollabuk-do, Korea, significantly inhibited the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α, as well as NO, in RAW 264.7 cells stimulated with LPS. The anti-inflammatory effects of C. antiquorum var. esculenta through the mechanism of inhibition of TNF-α, IL-6, and NO. C. antiquorum var. esculenta did not exhibit cytotoxic effects, indicating that its anti-inflammatory activity was due to specific mechanisms inhibiting inflammation rather than cytotoxicity.⁵⁴ C. antiquorum var. esculenta contains various single compounds, such as N-trans-feruloyl-tyramine and β-sitosterol, which have been reported to have anti-inflammatory properties.^59,60

Proliferative Activity

The potential of C. esculenta to enhance cell proliferation was assessed by formulating nanofiber membranes to stimulate skin cell regeneration using the human skin fibroblast cell line (BJ cell, ATCC CRL-2522) as the model. Proteins from C. esculenta tubers were sourced from PT. Sentra Biogen Bandung, Indonesia, integrated into nanofiber membranes, and thought to improve cell adhesion and stimulate BJ cell growth.⁵² The primary amino acid in C. esculenta tuber protein is arginine, which has been shown to accelerate the proliferation of mouse embryonic fibroblast cells (NIH-3T3) and human dermal fibroblast (HDF) cells.⁶¹ In addition, the C. esculenta tuber protein contains glycine and proline, which are key protein components of connective tissues that form collagen.⁶² The increased C. esculenta tuber protein in the nanofiber membrane significantly promoted BJ cell proliferation. This finding is consistent with previous studies showing that C. esculenta tuber protein enhances fibroblast cell growth after 24 hours of incubation.⁵² Since proliferation is a crucial phase of wound healing characterized by fibroblast proliferation, extracellular matrix deposition, angiogenesis, and re-epithelialization, these results highlight the potential role of C. esculenta in supporting tissue regeneration and wound closure.⁶³

Radical Scavenging Activity

The PubMed search revealed the radical scavenging activity of C. esculenta, which resulted in two documents, both of which described the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and the NO techniques.^37,42 The details are described below.

The DPPH radical scavenging activity test showed that the ethanolic extract of C. esculenta leaves from India inhibited 88.3% of DPPH radical, as reported by Varghese et al.³⁷ Similarly, a related study reported that the methanolic extract of taro leaves had a scavenging activity of 81.77%, in comparison, the tuber extract showed 78.73%.¹⁸ Further research has highlighted the antioxidant potential of C. esculenta from Rupandehi district, Nepal, showing an IC₅₀ value for a total antioxidant activity level of 5.84 μg/mL and DPPH scavenger activity of 8.91 μg/mL.⁴² The NO assay results showed that the ethanolic leaf extract exhibited higher activity than the acetone leaf extract. All samples showed a gradual increase in scavenging activity as concentration increased from 12.5 to 200 μg/mL. The ethanolic extract inhibited 84.6 ± 0.79% of scavenging activity, with an IC₅₀ value of 76.1 ± 1.71 μg/mL.³⁷ The radical scavenging activity assay of 30 genotypes of C. esculenta cultivated at the Horticulture Experimental Farm of ICAR-Research Complex for North-Eastern Hill Region, Umiam, Meghalaya, was performed during the years 2022 to 2023 using the DPPH method. The results showed that all taro genotypes exhibited radical scavenging activity. However, there were differences in the level of activity among the genotypes, with IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.71 ± 0.06 mg/mL to 1.13 ± 0.07 mg/mL dry weight. The total phenolic content of the 30 C. esculenta genotypes varied significantly, ranging from 78 ± 4.08 mg GAE/100 g to 100 ± 4.88 mg GAE/100 g dry weight.⁶⁴

Antidiabetic Activity

Traditionally, the extracts of the root and leaves of C. esculenta have therapeutic benefits and have been widely used in the management of diabetes and hypertension.⁶⁵ Research on the methanol extract of C. esculenta has demonstrated that this extraction method effectively isolates various bioactive compounds with pharmacological potential, such as phenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, and saponins.⁶⁶

Diabetes is a long-term metabolic disorder caused by inadequate insulin production or the inability of the body to use insulin effectively, resulting in increased glucose levels.⁶⁷ The presence of an imbalance causes persistent hyperglycemia, which is further intensified by the enhanced activity of key digestive enzymes, such as α-amylase and α-glucosidase.⁶⁸ These enzymes are responsible for breaking down carbohydrates into simple sugars that are readily absorbed into the bloodstream. The presence of enzyme inhibitors can slow carbohydrate digestion, decrease glucose absorption, and regulate postprandial blood glucose spikes.⁶⁹

The methanol extract of C. esculenta collected from the Fulgazi region, Feni District, Chattogram, Bangladesh, strongly inhibited α-amylase and α-glucosidase, highlighting its potential as an antidiabetic agent. By blocking these enzymes, the methanol extract of C. esculenta slows carbohydrate breakdown and decreases intestinal glucose absorption, ultimately leading to low post-meal blood glucose levels.³⁸ Research indicates that natural extracts with potent enzyme-inhibiting properties can effectively help regulate diabetes by preventing sharp increases in blood glucose after meals. Similar plant-based extracts have been found to significantly reduce glycemic indices in animal studies, underscoring the role of these inhibitors in diabetes management.^70,71

In vivo Studies of C. Esculenta

C. esculenta has been the subject of various in vivo studies investigating its pharmacological activities, as summarized in Table 3.

Table 3 In vivo Studies of C. Esculenta

Anti-Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) Agent

A study by Eleazu et al demonstrated that C. esculenta tubers collected from Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria, when administered as a 50% ethanol extract to testosterone propionate (TP)-induced animals, had significantly reduced testosterone concentration, the expression of IL-10 in the prostate of rats, and prostatic protein concentration. In contrast, there was an increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels in the rat prostate, showing antioxidant activity.³⁶ An increase in serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) was observed after TP was administered to male Wistar albino rats. However, co-administration of TP with the ethanol crude tuber extract of C. esculenta and its various fractions, including hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and aqueous fractions, resulted in a decrease in serum PSA levels, except for the butanone fraction (BF), which did not show a significant reduction.⁴⁸ Additionally, fractions of C. esculenta from Nigeria increased total serum protein and decreased testis weight relative to body weight. Histopathological analysis of the prostate revealed mild proliferation of glandular prostate cells and decreased secretion of prostatic fluids. Furthermore, the prostatic gland structure appeared normal, showing reduced prostate gland epithelial cells and an elevated presence of eosinophilic secretions in the glandular center.⁷²

Studies have shown that the methanol/chloroform extract contains many phenolic compounds,⁷⁹ some of which have been reported to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, 5-α-reductase inhibitory, anemiagenic, antitumor, immunostimulatory, leukotriene-D4 inhibitory, anti-androgenic, lipoxygenase inhibitory, and hypocholesterolemic properties.³⁶

Anticancer Activity

Recent studies have highlighted the therapeutic potential of C. esculenta, particularly in cancer prevention and treatment. Moreover, one article mentioned its potential biological, biochemical, and therapeutic applications, further supporting its relevance as a multifunctional medicinal plant.⁸⁰ Recent studies suggest that various bioactive compounds found in C. esculenta, such as flavonoids and phenolic compounds, contribute to anticancer activity. The ability of C. esculenta to fight cancer has been shown in a study showing that a soluble component isolated from cooked C. esculenta possesses inhibitory properties against the growth of colon adenocarcinoma cells.⁸¹ An additional in vivo study identified a water-soluble extract from raw C. esculenta that significantly suppressed breast cancer spread in two preclinical models of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC).⁵⁵ The effectiveness of C. esculenta in preventing metastasis was confirmed via treatment in female mice of the Balb/cByJ strain with C. esculenta extract (400 µg and 200 µL/day), which suppressed 87% to 100% of lung metastases in two TNBC models (66.1; 410.4). Two representative experiments showed that C. esculenta extract inhibited 99% of lung metastases in 66.1 cells and 100% of 410.4 cells. New data indicate that C. esculenta extract acts through direct mechanisms (anti-migratory, anti-proliferative, and anti-cancer stem cells) and immunological mechanisms to inhibit metastasis.⁷³

Antidiarrheal Activity

C. esculenta has emerged as a promising natural agent in managing diarrhea, owing to its rich phytochemical profile and multifaceted pharmacological actions. Several studies have indicated that its bioactive compounds contribute to antidiarrheal effects by inhibiting intestinal inflammation,⁸² suppressing excessive gastrointestinal motility,⁷⁴ and modulating electrolyte balance⁸³—these properties position C. esculenta as a potential alternative or complementary treatment for diarrhea. The antidiarrheal study utilized castor oil induction, which stimulates faecal excretion and increases intestinal motility by causing irritation and inflammation of the intestinal mucosal lining. Consequently, inflammatory mediators, particularly PGE₂ and NO, inhibit glucose absorption, trigger intestinal mucosal inflammation, cause intestinal smooth muscle contraction, and disrupt ion channels such as Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase.^82,84

The administration of C. esculenta peel extract, collected from Deko Kebele, Wonago Woreda, Southern Nations, and Peoples of South Ethiopia, in three different fractions, has been proven to reduce the total number of wet stools and total stool output. All solvent fractions significantly delayed the onset of diarrhea and reduced stool fluid content. The percentages of diarrhea inhibition at a 400 mg/kg dose for the aqueous fraction, chloroform fraction, and diethyl ether fraction were 55, 57.7, and 55.94%, respectively.⁷⁴ The effects of C. esculenta can be attributed to the presence of various phytochemical compounds, particularly alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, phenols, and terpenoids, which act by inhibiting PG, fluid, and electrolyte secretion, while simultaneously enhancing absorption through various mechanisms. Additionally, the anti-inflammatory effects of this plant may contribute to its efficacy.⁸³

Anti-Obesity and Hepatoprotective Activity

C. esculenta has shown promising anti-obesity and hepatoprotective effects, particularly in high-fat diet-induced models, by reducing weight gain and protecting liver tissue. A high-fat diet with 25% fat content can cause a slight increase in the body weight of rats,⁸⁵ whereas a 40% fat concentration is recognized for promoting obesity.⁸⁶ A high-fat diet is more effective in increasing body weight than a high-carbohydrate diet.⁸⁷ In a study using C. esculenta leaves collected from farms within Enugu Metropolis, Enugu State, Nigeria, rats fed with a high-fat diet (HFD) experienced a significant increase in body weight and elevated liver enzyme levels (ALT, AST, ALP) compared to the control group that received a standard diet. Administration of the crude aqueous extract and alkaloid fraction from C. esculenta leaves to rats fed a high-fat diet significantly reduced weight gain and decreased liver enzyme levels.⁷⁵

Natural products with anti-obesity effects work through various mechanisms, including reduced energy intake, suppression of lipid uptake, prevention of pre-adipocyte differentiation and proliferation, reduction of lipogenesis, enhancement of lipolysis, and increased energy expenditure.⁸⁸ Histological examination of liver tissue in rats fed a high-fat diet showed degenerative changes in the liver parenchyma due to lipid accumulation. These histopathological changes occur due to an increased supply of fatty acids to the liver or an increase in endogenous fatty acid synthesis in the liver.⁸⁹ Administration of the crude aqueous extract and fraction of saponin from C. esculenta leaves showed protective effects on liver tissue by significantly reducing fat accumulation. Overall, C. esculenta leaf extract (especially crude aqueous extract) can potentially reduce the body weight and fat accumulation caused by a high-fat diet and protect liver function.⁷⁵

Antidiabetic Activity

C. esculenta has gained increasing attention for its potential role in diabetes management, owing to its rich dietary fiber content,²⁷ complex carbohydrates,⁹⁰ and bioactive compounds that contribute to glycemic control.⁹¹ These properties support its traditional use and highlight its potential as a natural antidiabetic agent.

Research conducted by Eleazu et al showed that the administration of C. esculenta to streptozotocin-induced rats reduced serum glucose levels and hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C). HbA1C is a product of the irreversible condensation of glucose with the N-terminal residue of the β-chain of hemoglobin A. HbA1C levels are used to assess glycemic control in individuals with diabetes.^71,92

This study showed that the diabetic control group had a blood glucose level of 288.60 ± 11.78 mg/dL and an HbA1C level of 9.57 ± 1.63%. In contrast, the group treated with C. esculenta from Nigeria had a blood glucose level of 82.25 ± 4.27 mg/dL and an HbA1C level of 7.15 ± 1.21%. Polyphenol content plays a crucial role in antidiabetic activity.⁷¹ Tannins and alkaloids are polyphenolic compounds with antioxidant properties. In addition to scavenging free radicals, polyphenols can engage with cellular receptors and influence signalling pathways, thereby influencing the oxidation-reduction mechanism status of cells and triggering continuous redox reactions. Tannins also inhibit the activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase, which catalyze carbohydrate digestion into glucose.⁹¹ The ability of C. esculenta to reduce triacylglycerol levels may play an indirect role in its anti-hyperglycemic effects by influencing the glucose-fatty acid cycle.⁹³

Diuretic Activity

C. esculenta has emerged as a potential natural diuretic agent, with studies demonstrating its ability to promote urine excretion,³⁸ and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance.⁹⁴ This effect is likely attributed to its bioactive compounds, which may act through mechanisms comparable to those of conventional diuretics. Diuretics increase urine production, helping to eliminate excess fluids and electrolytes from the body and making them beneficial in managing hypertension, edema, and kidney disease.⁹⁵ One of the activities of the methanol extracts of C. esculenta flowers is diuretic activity. Methanol extracts of C. esculenta flowers collected from the Fulgazi region, District of Feni, Chattogram, Bangladesh, exhibited notable diuretic activity, as evidenced by a significant increase in urine output at all tested doses. This effect was particularly pronounced at 500 mg and 750 mg, with recorded urine volumes of 4.87 ± 0.67 mL and 5.78 ± 0.33 mL, respectively, after 12 hours of administration. The 750 mg dose resulted in a urinary excretion rate of 95%, closely approximating the effect of the reference diuretic, furosemide, which demonstrated a 105% excretion rate.³⁸

Moreover, ensuring an optimal Na/K ratio is crucial for maintaining electrolyte balance. Diuretics cause potassium loss and increased sodium excretion.⁹⁶ Maintaining stable Na⁺, K⁺, and Cl- levels is essential for regulating metabolic and cardiovascular health.⁹⁷ The electrolyte profile showed that 750 mg of the methanol extracts of C. esculenta flowers increased Na+ and Cl- excretion, demonstrating the extract’s effect on fluid regulation. The high K+ content in C. esculenta contributes to its significant diuretic effect because enhanced kidney function and higher K+ levels can promote natriuresis (increased urine production).⁹⁴

Studies have shown that carbonic anhydrase inhibitors such as acetazolamide effectively enhance diuresis.^98,99 Cyclohexane-1,2-diol exhibited the highest binding affinity in molecular docking tests, indicating that this compound has the potential to act as a dual-action drug with strong diuretic properties. High binding affinity was also demonstrated by diethyl 1-methyl-3-hydroxy-5-phenylpyrrole-2,4-dicarboxylate, suggesting its possible involvement in managing these conditions. This indicates the effectiveness of the methanol extracts of C. esculenta flowers as a source of phytochemicals with therapeutic potential.³⁸

Antihyperlipidemic Activity

C. esculenta has shown considerable potential as a natural therapeutic agent for the management of hyperlipidemia, particularly in diabetic conditions. Hyperlipidemia, defined as elevated levels of circulating lipids—primarily cholesterol and triglycerides—is a common complication of diabetes mellitus and a significant contributing factor to the development of cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis, hypertension, and coronary artery disease.^80,100 In diabetic individuals, increased mobilization of free fatty acids from peripheral tissues is believed to play a central role in the rise of serum lipid levels.¹⁰¹ Numerous studies have demonstrated the lipid-lowering properties of C. esculenta, showing its ability to decrease total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), while elevating high-density lipoprotein (HDL). These effects contribute to improvements in lipid metabolism and cardiovascular health.⁷¹

A study by Eleazu et al reported that the administration of C. esculenta extract to diabetic rats significantly improved their lipid profiles. Total cholesterol decreased by 41.7%, triglycerides by 34.1%, VLDL by 34.0%, and LDL by 61.9%, while HDL increased by 46.0%. These results were further supported by a reduction in atherogenic and coronary risk indices, reinforcing the cardioprotective role of C. esculenta.⁷¹ These findings highlight the therapeutic potential of C. esculenta in regulating dyslipidemia and preventing lipid-related complications, particularly in the context of diabetes.

Treatment of Periodontal Disease

Recent studies have highlighted the potential of plant-derived compounds, such as C. antiquorum var. esculenta, to promote microbial diversity and support oral health. This therapeutic potential aligns with current strategies for treating and preventing periodontal disease, which require an integrated approach, particularly through modulation of the oral microbiome. Changes in the diversity of oral microbial communities are now recognized as early indicators of periodontal pathology, including dental caries, periodontitis, and systemic diseases such as cardiovascular disorders, cerebrovascular disease, atherosclerosis, and diabetes.^102–104 Under pathological conditions, reduced microbial diversity often leads to the dominance of certain opportunistic organisms, which contributes to the development of periodontitis and dental caries.¹⁰⁵ Therefore, restoring microbial balance has become a central focus in periodontal therapy. See details below.

In this study, the microbiome diversity in the positive control group decreased. In contrast, the groups treated with varnish and varnish containing 15% C. antiquorum var. esculenta showed an increase in diversity similar to that observed in the normal group. The presence of dominant bacteria such as Streptococcus and Lactobacillus in these groups indicates their potential to diversify the oral microbiome. In addition, although microbiome diversity decreased in the positive control group, no significant alveolar bone loss occurred, suggesting that changes in the oral microbiome can happen in the early stages of periodontal disease without causing noticeable structural damage. A decrease in microbiome diversity, as observed in the positive control group, is often associated with the dominance of certain bacteria, which can lead to periodontitis and tooth decay. This study demonstrated the effectiveness of C. antiquorum var. esculenta, obtained from the Korea Plant Extract Bank, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon, South Korea, as a preventive and therapeutic agent for periodontal disease.⁵¹

Anti-Inflammatory Activity

C. esculenta has been increasingly recognized for its anti-inflammatory potential, supported by in vivo studies and phytochemical analyses highlighting its interaction with key inflammatory mediators. Several bioactive compounds in this plant have demonstrated the ability to modulate inflammation by affecting both early and late-phase mediators, including serotonin, histamine, prostaglandins, bradykinin, lysozyme,⁵³ and the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β.¹⁰⁶ These mediators play crucial roles in the initiation and progression of inflammatory responses, and their modulation suggests that C. esculenta may serve as a promising natural source for inflammation management. Further details are provided in the following paragraphs:

It has been reported that C. esculenta contains various active compounds and possesses health benefits.^107,108 The methanol extract of the roots of C. esculenta collected from Udalguri District, Assam, India, was analyzed by LC-MS and revealed 20 significant phytochemicals with potential anti-inflammatory properties. Animal testing on carrageenan-induced inflammation showed that the groups receiving the methanol extract of C. esculenta root at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg BW exhibited inhibition percentages of 67.66% and 58.95%, respectively. The 400 mg/kg BW dose resulted in 87.79% inhibition. Therefore, the conclusions drawn from this study indicate that a high dose of the methanol extract of C. esculenta root (400 mg/kg BW) exerts anti-inflammatory effects by modulating the synthesis of kinins, prostaglandins, bradykinins, and lysozymes.⁵³ The inflammatory progression caused by carrageenan induction is biphasic, with serotonin and histamine release in the early phase (first hour). The second phase of swelling, which responds to both steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, is caused by the release of prostaglandins, bradykinins, and lysozymes.^109,110

In a periodontitis model study, C. antiquorum var. esculenta obtained from the Korea Plant Extract Bank, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, located in Daejeon, South Korea, was used. Application of C. antiquorum var. esculenta extract varnish significantly reduced IL-1β expression in the gingival tissue.⁷⁶ IL-1β is an inflammatory cytokine that appears during the initial phases of inflammation.¹⁰⁶ However, this study could not identify the compounds in C. antiquorum var. esculenta extract that are responsible for its anti-inflammatory activity.

Nutritious Food Products

C. esculenta has gained attention for its medicinal properties and nutritional value,¹⁹ particularly as a potential food source for sensitive populations, such as allergic infants and individuals with gastrointestinal disorders.¹² Its corms can be processed into various food products suitable for these specific dietary needs.^25,90 One drawback of consuming raw C. esculenta tubers is the presence of anti-nutritional compounds, including oxalates, throughout the entire plant. Oxalate is the final metabolic product of numerous plant varieties, occurs in both soluble and insoluble forms. Their levels fluctuate based on nutritional types, soil characteristics, and growth stages.¹¹¹ Oxalate levels in the Araceae plants can be minimized by peeling, grating, soaking, fermenting, and cooking before consumption. If not properly cooked, oxalates can cause throat irritation and interfere with the distribution of other nutrients, potentially leading to health issues when consumed in excess.^112,113

Research has demonstrated that consuming food supplemented with raw C. esculenta corms from Colegio de Posgraduados, Campus Veracruz, Mexico, at different concentrations (15% and 50%) did not significantly affect changes in the body weight of mice between the start and end of this study. The same pattern was observed in mice fed with cooked C. esculenta tubers (15% and 50%). All groups showed the same consumption pattern with no notable differences, indicating that the addition of C. esculenta corms (both raw and cooked) did not cause changes in consumption patterns. Therefore, it can be concluded that the amount of anti-nutritional factors, such as oxalates and hydrogen cyanide (HCN), in raw C. esculenta corms had no appreciable effect on the body weight of mice, as no statistically significant differences were detected over the 9-week observation period.⁷⁷

Neuroprotective Activity

The neuroprotective potential of C. esculenta has attracted increasing scientific interest, particularly owing to its prospective use as an anticonvulsant and in the management of neurodegenerative conditions. Phytochemical constituents from its leaves benefit neural function, indicating their ability to modulate key targets involved in neuronal damage.⁴¹ A study on the neuroprotective activity of C. esculenta leaves demonstrated that the methanolic extract and n-butanol fraction, when tested in vivo using a rat model induced with monosodium glutamate (MSG) cytotoxicity, could mitigate the detrimental effects of MSG on the nervous system. Decreased aggressiveness scores in rats were evidenced by the administration of the methanolic extract and n-butanol fraction compared to the control group. The effect of C. esculenta extract on the histological examination of the cortical region indicated a reduction in degenerating neurons, while the hippocampal CA1 region showed a decrease in degenerating neurons. Molecular docking studies confirmed that the compounds isolated from C. esculenta leaves from Al Monier Village, Mashtool El Souk, Al-Sharkia Governorate, Egypt, effectively bind to target sites with a higher binding energy than that of the crystallized ligand, indicating a strong potential for neuroprotection. The polyphenolic compounds from C. esculenta leaves and their effective binding in molecular docking studies further highlight their potential for treating neurological conditions.⁴⁰ This study confirms that caspase-3 is a key mediator of neuronal death and a standard regulator of several neurodegenerative diseases. The inhibition of caspase-3 may also protect the dopaminergic neurons from various stimuli.^114,115

Anticonvulsant Activity

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by intrusive, recurrent thoughts and/or ritualistic behaviors that lead to emotional distress and interfere with daily life.¹¹⁶ The marble-burying test has been widely utilized as a behavioral paradigm to assess compulsive-like activities through repeated trials. Pharmacological agents such as tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been shown to attenuate this behavior.^117,118 Notably, marble-burying is a species-specific, defensive behavioral response in rodents that persists across multiple exposures and is not triggered by immediate physical threats.¹¹⁹ These characteristics support its interpretation as a model of compulsivity rather than anxiety.^117,120 Building on this framework, Kalariya et al conducted a study employing the hydroalcoholic extract of C. esculenta leaves from India, demonstrating that intraperitoneal administration of 25 and 50 mg/kg significantly suppressed marble-burying behavior in mice.⁷⁸

From a pathophysiological perspective, OCD has been associated with dysregulation of the neurotransmitter serotonin, which is thought to be involved in anxiety modulation. According to BBC Science (2014), serotonin interacts with receptor sites on adjacent neurons to induce neurotransmission. It has been hypothesized that patients with OCD have understimulated serotonin receptors. This hypothesis aligns with the findings that many patients with OCD experience improvement with SSRIs, a class of antidepressants that enhance serotonin availability for other nerve cells (https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/articles/disorders/causesofocd.shtml).

Hydroalcoholic extract of C. esculenta leaves is thought to have an effect similar to that of SSRIs or it may exert a suppressive effect on serotonergic neurotransmission. The anti-compulsive mechanism of the hydroalcoholic extract of C. esculenta leaves may involve one of its phytoconstituents (flavonoids, steroids, or β-sitosterol) in serotonergic neurotransmission. Additionally, the steroidal compounds found in the hydroalcoholic extract of C. esculenta leaves have lipophilic characteristics, enabling them to traverse the blood-brain barrier. These findings suggest that these compounds may contribute to anti-compulsive effects through molecular interactions within the central nervous system.¹²¹

Clinical Evidence

A study conducted by Wu et al provided preliminary evidence that C. esculenta possesses anticancer potential, particularly as a chemopreventive agent against pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD).¹²² These findings support the need for further investigations into its bioactive compounds—such as tarin—and encourage future clinical trials in cancer patients.¹²³

In this study, a dietary intervention was conducted in 42 healthy volunteers (19 males and 23 females) from Jingjiang City, Jiangsu Province, China. The biological effects of C. esculenta consumption were assessed using the proximity extension assay (PEA), which revealed significant changes in the expression of 22 of 92 cancer-related proteins. Specifically, carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1), EPH receptor A2 (EPHA2), and integrin subunit beta-5 (ITGB5) were significantly upregulated, whereas cellular communication network factor 1 (CYR61, also known as CCN1), annexin A1 (ANXA1), and vimentin (VIM) were markedly downregulated following dietary intake of the plant.¹²² The involvement of these proteins in carcinogenesis has been well documented. CYR61 is implicated in hormone and growth factor signaling and has been associated with poor prognosis in breast, colorectal, and prostate cancers.^124–126 ANXA1, a calcium-binding protein, plays a regulatory role in the arachidonic acid metabolic pathway and EGFR-mediated tyrosine kinase signaling, and it is frequently overexpressed during early stages of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma.¹²⁷ Vimentin, a key marker of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), is closely linked to tumor progression, particularly in colorectal cancer.¹²⁸

Tarin—a bioactive GNA-related lectin isolated from C. esculenta—has demonstrated antiviral, insecticidal, and immunomodulatory properties. It may also exert prophylactic and therapeutic effects on hematopoietic and cancer cells, reinforcing its potential as a multi-functional therapeutic agent.¹²²

Taken together, these findings highlight the therapeutic relevance of C. esculenta and its active components in cancer prevention and treatment.

Toxicity Studies

Toxicological evaluations of C. esculenta extracts have been conducted to assess their safety profiles in both acute and sub-chronic settings. C. esculenta is widely consumed as a traditional carbohydrate-rich food.^27,90 Beyond its nutritional value, this plant has also been reported to exhibit various pharmacological activities with potential therapeutic benefits. Therefore, toxicity studies are essential to ensure its safety for dietary and medicinal applications.

Toxicity evaluations of C. esculenta indicate that leaf doses up to 1000 mg/kg BW,¹²⁹ and tuber doses of 100–400 mg/kg BW are relatively safe in rats.⁷¹ Higher doses, particularly in sub-chronic tests, can reduce body weight, affect liver and kidney organs, and alter hematological parameters and liver enzymes, indicating moderate toxic potential. Overall, C. esculenta is safe for consumption at moderate doses, but long-term high-dose administration should be cautiously approached. The following section provides a detailed account of the acute and sub-chronic toxicity assessments of the leaves and tubers of C. esculenta, including safe dosage ranges, effects on organ function, and alterations in hematological and biochemical parameters.

Acute toxicity tests reported by Oriyomi et al showed that a single-dose administration of the ethyl acetate fraction of C. esculenta leaf extract, collected from the Parks and Garden of Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU), Nigeria, at 10, 100, and 1000 mg/kg BW did not significantly change the signs of toxicity in test animals. However, animals that received higher doses of 1600, 2900, and 5000 mg/kg BW exhibited signs of toxicity. Assessments were performed every 4 hours for a total of 24 hours. Acute toxicity signs at a dose of ≥1600 mg/kg BW orally in rats indicated a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of ≤1000 mg/kg BW for the ethyl acetate fraction of C. esculenta leaf extract. However, the cumulative effect of this fraction did not result in mortality or tremors. Therefore, the fraction was considered biologically safe at an LD₅₀ >5000 mg/kg BW.⁴¹

The sub-chronic toxicity test of the ethyl acetate fraction of C. esculenta leaf extract administered for 60 days showed a dose-dependent weight loss effect and a decrease in the viscera index (organ-to-body weight ratio) of the liver and kidneys, indicating possible organ toxicity at higher doses. A decrease in body weight and visceral index is a sensitive indicator of toxicity.¹³⁰ Additionally, there was an increase in the Atherogenic Risk Index (ARI) and Coronary Risk Index (CRI), as evidenced by changes in the lipid profile due to toxic expression. Hematological parameters showed an increase in red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC), lymphocytes, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC). Regarding liver enzymes, there was a decrease in total protein and albumin levels in the high-dose group. Furthermore, an increase in bilirubin, ALT, AST, urea, creatinine, and creatinine kinase levels was observed in the 1000 mg/kg BW dose group. These results suggest that the ethyl acetate fraction of C. esculenta leaf extract has moderate toxic potential.³⁸

In another study, an acute toxicity test was conducted on fresh C. esculenta tubers purchased from a meat market in Abakaliki, Ebonyi, Nigeria. After an overnight fast, 2000 mg/kg of 50% aqueous ethanol extract of C. esculenta tuber was administered orally to a female rat, and physical or behavioral changes were observed for 30 minutes, then periodically every 4 hours for the next 24 hours, and daily thereafter for 14 days. After the first rat survived, four other female rats were recruited, fasted for 4 hours, administered the same dose of extract, and closely monitored for 14 days for signs of toxicity. The test showed no signs of toxicity or death in the animals; therefore, safe treatment doses for further testing were determined to be 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg BW.³⁶

Metabolites and Their Mechanism of Action

C. esculenta is a plant known for its diverse pharmacological properties, attributed to its rich content of secondary metabolites such as saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds.¹⁴ These bioactive constituents exhibit a wide range of biological effects—including antibacterial,^50–52 anti-oxidant,^37,42 anti-inflammatory,^42,50,53,54 antihyperlipidemic,⁷¹ and anticancer activities,^35,49,73—through the modulation of various cellular targets and signaling pathways.

The antibacterial potential of C. esculenta is primarily mediated by compounds that disrupt the structural and functional integrity of bacterial cells. Saponins increase the permeability of the bacterial cell wall, leading to cell lysis.⁵⁶ Flavonoids interact with bacterial proteins and nucleic acids, causing denaturation and inhibition of metabolic processes, in addition to disrupting cell membrane synthesis.¹³¹ Tannins exert antimicrobial action by inhibiting protein synthesis essential for cell wall formation, resulting in membrane contraction and cell death.¹³² Alkaloids interfere with peptidoglycan synthesis in bacterial walls, weakening the structural support and causing cell death.¹³³ Terpenoids further contribute by damaging the bacterial outer membrane and altering permeability, which deprives bacteria of essential nutrients and inhibits growth.¹³⁴ These mechanisms collectively highlight the multifaceted antibacterial actions of C. esculenta metabolites.

Many of these compounds—particularly flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins—are potent antioxidants. They neutralize free radicals and chelate pro-oxidant metal ions, thereby reducing oxidative stress, which is a key factor in the pathogenesis of many chronic diseases. The antioxidant activity of C. esculenta has been linked to its high polyphenol contents, including catechins, kaempferol, caffeic acid, rutin, quercitrin, ellagic acid, quercetin, and chlorogenic acid.¹³⁵ Studies on leaf extracts have shown strong radical scavenging capacity, attributed to high total phenolic and flavonoid content, as indicated by low IC₅₀ values.¹³⁶ Moreover, LC-MS analysis of ethanol extracts from C. esculenta leaves has revealed the presence of eight polyphenols: quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, caffeic acid, luteolin-7-rutinoside, chlorogenic acid, vitexin, and rutin.³⁷

The antioxidant properties of C. esculenta are mechanistically linked to its antihyperlipidemic effects. Oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in lipid peroxidation and the development of atherosclerosis. By reducing oxidative damage, polyphenols in C. esculenta help lower total cholesterol, LDL, VLDL, and triglyceride levels, while simultaneously increasing HDL levels.^98,137 This lipid-modulating effect not only improves lipid metabolism but also contributes to the prevention of cardiovascular complications, particularly in conditions such as diabetes mellitus, where hyperlipidemia is a common metabolic disturbance.

These antioxidant and lipid-regulating mechanisms also intersect with the anti-inflammatory potential of plants. Oxidative stress and inflammation are tightly interlinked, with ROS capable of activating pro-inflammatory transcription factors such as NF-κB. C. esculenta flavonoids, anthocyanins (eg, cyanidin 3-glucoside), and other polyphenols have been shown to inhibit the activation of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, thereby suppressing the expression of inflammatory mediators including TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, COX-2, and iNOS.^53,138,139 Compounds such as orientin and isoorientin further enhance this effect by modulating cytokine levels and reducing nitric oxide production. These mechanisms highlight how the anti-inflammatory activity of C. esculenta is closely related to its antioxidant function, forming a synergistic defense mechanism against chronic inflammation.^37,42,140

In addition to mitigating inflammation, C. esculenta has shown promising anticancer activity by modulating apoptosis and immune function. Bioactive constituents such as tarin (a GNA-related lectin), flavonoids, and isoorientin activate the intrinsic mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, increasing the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, promoting cytochrome c release, and triggering the activation of caspases-3 and −9.¹⁴¹ This apoptotic signaling leads to the programmed death of cancer cells. Concurrently, the suppression of proliferative pathways such as PI3K/Akt and MAPK further reinforces the antiproliferative effects. Moreover, tarin enhances natural killer (NK) cell activity and stimulates the release of cytokines such as interferon (IFN)-γ, thereby augmenting antitumor immunity and contributing to the chemopreventive properties of plants.^47,123

Taken together, the pharmacological activities of C. esculenta are interconnected at the molecular level. Its bioactive compounds exert antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antihyperlipidemic, and anticancer effects through mechanisms involving the disruption of microbial integrity, neutralization of oxidative stress, modulation of inflammatory signaling, and induction of apoptosis. The mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities of bioactive metabolites in C. esculenta are presented in Figure 3. These findings highlight C. esculenta as a promising candidate for the development of multi-targeted therapeutic agents for chronic diseases.

Figure 3 Mechanisms of anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities of bioactive metabolites in Colocasia esculenta, created using Biorender (https://www.biorender.com/) and combined in Canva (https://www.canva.com/). Abbreviations: COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid; IkB, IkappaB; IKKβ, IkappaB kinase beta; IL-1β, interleukin-1β; IL-4, interleukin-4; M phase, mitosis phase, which refers to a phase when the cell divides its nucleus and its cytoplasm (cytokinesis) to form two distinct daughter cells; G2 phase, gap 2 phase, which refers to a phase when the cell continues to grow, synthesizes proteins, and prepares for the next M phase.

Conclusion

Our findings indicate that C. esculenta possesses a wide range of pharmacological properties under both in vitro and in vivo conditions, with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities being the most commonly observed. This suggests its potential against various diseases such as cancer, diabetes, coronary heart disease, and other diseases that are primarily caused by oxidative stress. These observations also support the safety of C. esculenta, as it has undergone acute and subchronic toxicity testing in animal models. Furthermore, anticancer observations using healthy human blood have demonstrated that C. esculenta has potential for clinical research in patients with cancer. C. esculenta contains a variety of bioactive molecules with significant potential as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, metabolic-regulating, and anticancer agents, through the modulation of pro-inflammatory pathways, such as iNOS and COX-2. Based on toxicity studies, leaf doses up to 1000 mg/kg BW and tuber doses of 100–400 mg/kg BW in animals were considered relatively safe, indicating that moderate consumption can be considered safe. However, more in-depth molecular studies (in vitro, in vivo, and molecular biology) are needed to elucidate the specific protein-compound interactions and their pharmacodynamic effects.